A theoretical framework to describe a cognitive-emotional process in which individuals become compulsively engaged in uncovering hidden meanings or secret plots, particularly in the context of conspiracy and disinformation narratives. This behaviour has been shown to be psychologically rewarding, akin to a dopamine loop: each perceived ‘clue’ provides a sense of mastery, emotional satisfaction, and a sense of belonging, especially within online communities such as QAnon. Rather than being driven by a rational search for truth, it becomes a self-reinforcing cycle characterised by emotional intensity. This pattern is further fuelled by cognitive biases such as confirmation bias and the conjunction fallacy, which lead individuals to favour complex, conspiratorial explanations over simpler, more likely ones. It perpetuates a cycle of information consumption characterised by its seductive, participatory, and ultimately misleading nature.

In contemporary algorithmic public space, citizenship is increasingly recognised through data rather than through direct action. The algorithmic citizen becomes a computed subject whose choices, frustrations, and silences feed predictive systems used by online platforms, institutions, and commercial infrastructures. As a result, democratic participation risks becoming a simulation: voices appear free, yet are continuously ranked, filtered, and monetised. Citizenship shifts from reasoned deliberation to patterns of measurable behaviour. When voting becomes clicking and emotion becomes a resource for governance, the urgent question becomes: what forms of agency – and what forms of democracy – are at stake under algorithmic rule?

A combination of anarchism and capitalism, in which free markets rule the world. Anarcho-capitalists believe the state should not exist, that any form of centralised authority is inherently illegitimate. They argue that environmental problems ought to be addressed with private solutions, and that individuals and private enterprises should contract negotiate and innovate solutions to environmental problems.

Soil is not inert, but a living archive of memory, body, and ethics. In East Asian cosmology, it carries ancestral breath and the rhythm of labour. It remembers the harvested grain, the vanished village, the buried name. Ancestral soils remind us that the climate crisis also dwells in the forgotten past. When industry flattens the earth into an extractable surface, we sever our linguistic and cultural ties to the land and to those who cultivated it before us. Healing the climate may first require learning how to listen and speak with the soil – acknowledging both ecological harm and the histories that shaped it. For example, the environmental consequences that followed the Industrial Revolution in Western countries illustrate how the rapid extraction of resources and the release of toxic emissions can reshape landscapes, communities, and climate patterns across generations.

A cognitive bias that causes people to rely heavily on the first piece of information they are given about a topic.

Climate deniers hiding behind pseudonyms online.

Climate change can be divided into two categories: anthropogenic and natural climate change. Natural climate change is a natural and ever-present cycle that drives the Earth’s climate. Anthropogenic climate change describes changes directly linked as a result of human activities, such as the burning of fossil fuels, aerosol releases, deforestation, and alterations of environments due to agriculture.

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Trying to convince others by providing evidence that supports an argument. It involves presenting logical reasoning, facts, or examples to defend a point of view and influence understanding. Argumentation plays a critical role in the debate on climate change, as it uses evidence, data, and logical reasoning to convince others about the reality and urgency of the issue. However, on many occasions, argumentation is distorted, with opposing sides using selective evidence or emotional appeals, complicating the path towards collective solutions to the climate crisis.

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The tendency for some people to resist evidence that conflicts with their beliefs. The effect is demonstrated when people presented with conflicting information become even more convinced of their original beliefs rather than questioning them. The backfire effect is one manifestation of confirmation bias, the tendency for people to give more credence to evidence that supports their preexisting beliefs. The bias is so strong that people refuse to consider the possibility that they have been mistaken. Examples include climate change denial despite scientific evidence supporting the reality of climate change and anti-vaccine beliefs despite scientific evidence supporting the safety and effectiveness of vaccines.

A phenomenon where people adopt behaviours because others do. People don’t want to stand out so they follow the crowd.

The variability of life on Earth. It can be measured on various levels, such as genetic variability, species diversity, and ecosystem diversity. Diversity is not distributed evenly on Earth: it is much greater in the tropics as a result of the warmer climate and high primary productivity. Human activities have negatively impacted our climate, and led to an ongoing loss of biodiversity, with habitat destruction being the main reason. Due to climate change, entire biomes are becoming at risk of changing completely.

A distinct geographical region with its own specific climate, vegetation, and animal life adapted to its climate. Climate change has greatly affected the distribution of Earth’s biomes. They are at risk of changing entirely due to extreme weather events that force already present flora and fauna to adapt to their rapidly changing environment.

A core pillar that supports the biosphere and therefore underpins our survival. It describes the overall health and functioning of Earth’s ecosystems, essential to maintaining biodiversity, ecosystem resilience, and to the capacity of ecosystems to support all life forms. Expansion of agriculture, direct exploitation of natural resources, introduction of non-native species to other environments, climate change, pollution, and many other negative factors have resulted in deterioration of biosphere integrity. Functional integrity provides ecosystems the ability to maintain entire species and their interactions, which in turn support the ecosystem’s functions.

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Anything that absorbs more carbon from the atmosphere than it releases such as, for example, plants, the ocean, and soil. In contrast, a carbon source is anything that releases more carbon into the atmosphere than it absorbs, including the burning of fossil fuels and volcanic eruptions.

An over-fixation on carbon emissions as the driving force in climate change. Organisations that employ sustainable practices set their primary goal as carbon reduction, without seeing the bigger picture. Carbon is tangible – it makes sense to approach a complicated issue in simple terms. However, such a carbon-focused strategy neglects other ways organisations can effectively reach sustainability. To combat carbon tunnel vision, organisations must assess their individual issues and take broader steps towards a green strategy that encompasses various departments, not just CO2.

The opportunity or privilege to choose freely. In other words, choice can be influenced or encouraged by something. An influencing factor might include, but is not limited to, the media that we consume, family, social status, privilege, class, income, personal background, etc.

Civil disobedience is a non-violent form of protest in which civilians refuse to obey, or break, established rules or laws. This form of protest has been used historically by environmental activists and is often met with violence. An early example of this action took place in 1730 in North India. Abhai Singh, the Raja of Marwar, sent his minister and troops to collect wood from a grove of sacred khejri trees (Prosopis cineraria) in the village of Khejarli. The villagers refused to let them harvest the trees, and, led by Amrita Devi, who was afterwards widely revered for her bravery, they resisted by hugging the trees and standing in the way of the troops. Three-hundred-and-sixty-three people, including Devi, were killed while protecting the trees, but their actions would go on to inspire the Chipko movement of the 1970s where rural villagers in the Indian Himalayas protested commercial logging through the act of ‘tree-hugging.’

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The aim to moderate and avoid harm for people by adjusting climate change. It refers to the changes in processes, practices, and structures that can be applied to upkeep human health. Many countries need to develop climate adaptation plans and implement them for the security and health of their population, as a response to current and future climate impacts. Adaptation measures vary by region and community, depending on specific climate impacts.

A pattern of long-term shifts in temperatures and weather, including global warming, drought, floods, and rising sea levels. Such shifts can be natural, due to changes in the sun’s activity or large volcanic eruptions. Since the 1800s, human activities have been the main driver of climate change, primarily due to the burning of fossil fuels like coal, oil, and gas. In the 2016 Paris Agreement, the problem of keeping the global average temperature below 1.5 degrees Celsius was raised, recognising that this would significantly reduce the risks and impacts of climate change.

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A movement and framework that recognises the effects of climate change are not distributed equally, and that those who contribute the least to the crisis often suffer the most. It emphasises the ethical, social, and political dimensions of climate change, highlighting how marginalised communities – particularly in the Global South, Indigenous populations, low-income groups, and historically disadvantaged communities – bear a disproportionate burden of environmental destruction, extreme weather events, and resource depletion.

Dikes, or barriers to protect low-lying land from bodies of water are used all over the world. In the Netherlands, two-thirds of which lies below sea level, the earliest indications of dike building date from the late Iron Age, with their large-scale construction, and official management, beginning around the 1200s as the lower lands became inhabited. With the rise of sea levels caused by the climate emergency (rising by an unexpected 59 centimetres in 2024 and continuing to rise according to NASA), the role of dikes becomes evermore significant. Increasingly, in the Netherlands, alternative, more natural approaches to sea defences are used, such as living dikes and designated flooding zones. For example, in Groningen, the Double-Dike system is an innovative Dutch coastal defence strategy featuring two parallel dikes creating an intertidal zone for land reclamation. But this is not possible everywhere; Bangladesh, for example, is located in a delta with many rivers prone to flooding and, with increasing extreme weather events and rising sea levels, this situation becomes increasingly challenging.

A systematic pattern of thinking or judgment that influences our decisions and beliefs. Individuals create their own ‘subjective reality’ from their perception of the input. It can lead to inaccurate or unreasonable conclusions.

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The secondary meaning of one word. Connotation does not carry the direct meaning of a word, but rather evokes the idea or feeling of another one. Connotations are used in various ways to send underlying messages. Used in a sentence: ‘These images could have a bad connotation.’ Similar words include undertone, implication, nuance, and hidden meaning.

A specific event or development due to the belief that a secret group has made sinister plans against another group. There are several subcategories: an event-conspiracy theory describes an event believed to be staged, like a natural disaster; a systemic conspiracy theory describes control over an entire system such as the government, science, or media; and a super conspiracy theory implies a long-term plan to control society. A conspiracy theory has primarily negative connotations as it is not based on facts but feelings of distrust and fears of a specific group of people. Its explanations are often illogical or mythical, with other explanations being more probable.

Design is often complicit in corporate disinformation – where visual strategies are used to mask harm and promote profit. Through branding, ads, and packaging, harmful products like tobacco or fossil fuels are made to appear safe or desirable. These campaigns are intentional, relying on emotional appeal, repetition, and aesthetics. Designers play a role in this manipulation, raising ethical concerns. Today, design isn’t just visual – it’s ideological. Designers must choose: uphold deceptive systems or resist them by exposing truth. Understanding how disinformation works helps create a more transparent visual culture in our image-saturated, narrative-driven world.

Communities and spaces that form outside dominant social and political structures, where marginalised groups can articulate their own narratives and ways of organising can be referred to as counter-publics. In the context of climate change, counter-publics challenge mainstream, often-exclusionary climate discourse (constructed by national governments, various media outlets, and the public) by centring voices of those most affected by environmental harm. They create alternative channels for sharing knowledge, imagining different futures, and pushing back against narratives shaped by power, misinformation, and uneven responsibility. An example can be seen in grassroots climate justice collectives led by Indigenous communities, who document land loss, propose community-based solutions, and spread their perspectives through zines, social media, and independent networks rather than relying on institutional, mainstream platforms.

A time of intense difficulty, danger, disagreement, or suffering. It often involves unexpected challenges that disrupt normal functioning and require immediate action. Key traits are unpredictability, urgency, and the potential for lasting negative effects.

A conflict between two social groups that share very different values, beliefs, or identity. In the context of climate change, scientific facts become political symbols. One group might see climate action as a moral duty to protect the planet, while another may view it as government overreach or part of an elitist agenda. This emotional divide turns climate change into a cultural identity issue rather than a scientific one.

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The subtle process of downplaying climate change as an urgent crisis in political and media narratives. It involves silencing concerns, minimising harm, exaggerating future technological fixes, and shifting responsibility by using neutral language. This process ignores the structural roots of climate change, including the current economic model and global inequalities, framing it solely as a scientific issue detached from social and economic contexts. As a result, it creates a false sense of security, weakens public urgency, and reduces pressure for transformative action, ultimately fostering complacency and obstructing meaningful responses to the climate crisis.

To show that something is not true, to prove that a story, idea, or statement is false. Debunking conspiracy theories means using evidence, logic, and scientific reasoning to expose false claims. It plays a big role in responding to misinformation and helping people tell facts from fiction. Debunking involves more than correcting errors; it includes breaking down how a false idea was constructed and identifying where it misleads.

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The discrediting that is involved in undermining the validity or legitimacy of someone or something, often to weaken opposition or advance an agenda. It appears across politics, justice, economics, science, and culture. Conspiracy theories frequently use this tactic against scientists, especially in the context of climate change. Their methods include doubting the science, claiming evidence is uncertain or exaggerated; discrediting scientists by attacking their credibility or motives; promoting disinformation to confuse the public; and obstructing climate action by opposing policies aimed at reducing emissions. This strategy fosters mistrust and delays meaningful responses to climate challenges.

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From the ancient Greek δημοκρατία, romanised as dēmokratía, dēmos or ‘people’, and kratos or ‘rule’. A system of government in which state power is vested in the people or the general population of a state. Under a minimalist definition of democracy, rulers are elected through competitive elections while more expansive definitions link democracy to guarantees of civil liberties and human rights in addition to competitive elections.

Design can foster sustainable habits and must go beyond aesthetics and function to encompass the entire product life-cycle, from material sourcing to production methods to usage patterns to end-of-life strategies. This can mean using recycled or biodegradable materials, modular systems that enable easier repair, disassembly, and circularity, and energy-efficient products powered by solar or wind.

Misleading content deliberately spread to deceive people, or to secure economic or political gain and which may cause public harm. Disinformation is an orchestrated adversarial activity in which actors employ strategic deceptions and media manipulation tactics to advance political, military, or commercial goals.

In the context of handling information about conspiracy theories, it’s not just about being informed, but also about deciding what information is relevant and accurate. Some steps we can take in informing ourselves are: source verification (reliability and credibility); critical thinking (analysing and processing information, identifying potential biases); connecting data (obtaining a broader picture); and cross-referencing (comparing information across different reliable sources to identify consistency and reduce the risk of misinformation). By carefully evaluating and synthesising information, we can distinguish between fact and speculation, and avoid falling into the trap of misleading narratives.

Quand le peuple n’aura plus rien à manger, il mangera le riche.
When the people shall have nothing more to eat, they will eat the rich.
Cuando el pueblo ya no tenga qué comer, se comerá a los ricos.
– Jean-Jacques Rousseau

An environment in which a person only encounters information or opinions that reflect and reinforce their own.

The continuation of colonial patterns of resource extraction and exploitation during the current climate crisis. An example would be the way in which countries with the highest levels of greenhouse gas emissions historically tend to respond by ignoring or erasing their responsibility for fallout in other countries. For instance, in the rush to go electric in China, Europe, and the US, increased lithium extraction has been detrimental to land use and displaced local communities. Protests against these projects have showcased their impact. Together these dynamics show that global environmental efforts perpetuate neo-colonial structures when they continue to prioritise technological solutions over systemic change.

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A branch of feminism that integrates both feminism and political ecology. This term was coined by the French writer Françoise d’Eaubonne in her 1974 book Le féminisme ou la mort (Feminism or death). Ecofeminism argues that women and other marginalised communities are the most vulnerable to issues caused by climate change and emphasises the ways both nature and women are treated by patriarchal society. According to ecofeminist theory, environmental problems are not separate from sociocultural and political issues, and thus ecology becomes a feminist issue. It is argued that in patriarchal society, women and nature are often depicted as chaotic and irrational and to be controlled by men, who are rational and ordered. To solve ecological and / or gender equality issues, it is important to change the social status of all three.

A combination of two Spanish words – ecológico (ecological) and ilógico (illogical) – and motto of SEO / BirdLife, the Spanish Ornithological Society, a leading environmental NGO in Spain. The organisation uses this term to raise public awareness about the need for a logical and responsible use of renewable energy that respects biodiversity, particularly the protection of birds. It was coined to expose and criticise the inconsistencies and contradictions that emerged within the renewable energies world.

People feel fear because climate change threatens their lives, health, economic security, and future. That fear can motivate people to change their behaviour, but only if they understand how serious the problem is and feel responsibility for it. Some people suppress these emotions because they feel too big or confusing, thinking, ‘I can’t do anything about it.’ That’s why perception matters. If we see climate change as far away, like it won’t happen soon or affects only other places, we feel less responsible. But if we see it as a threat to ourselves, we’re more likely to react and take action.

Local efforts that try to contribute to the clean energy transition. They help in increasing public acceptance and in the reshaping our energy systems, from smaller societies to the bigger ones.

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A belief that natural events like wildfires, volcanic eruptions, hurricanes, or floods are not natural but in fact orchestrated by a higher system. People who believe in the conspiracy think groups use special technology or hidden plans to cause disasters, often to create fear, gain power, or push certain political ideas. There’s no real evidence of these beliefs, but they can spread easily online and make it harder for people to trust science or prepare for real climate issues. An example of an event conspiracy theory would be the response to the Hurricane Helene in 2024. The suggestion was that the storm was steered by weather technologies to suppress pro-Trump voter turnout and justify stricter climate policies.

The process of verifying information by cross-referencing credible sources, data, and expert input. It is most commonly employed to evaluate the veracity of public statements, viral content, and news reports. While fact-checking is an essential practice, it has limitations. Primarily, it addresses individual claims rather than the broader narratives and emotional appeal driving misinformation, especially in conspiracy theories. In some cases, corrections are even dismissed as part of the “cover-up”. As designers, we can intervene by making verified information more accessible, emotionally resonant, and visually compelling. Engaging formats – interactive tools, infographics, and counter-memes – facilitate the transformation of truth from data to experience.

Or, information disorder, refers to the presentation of false information, often in mainstream media, with the intent to misinform or trick readers. The aim of fake news can be for personal gain or to ruin a person’s reputation. Fake news about climate change can be found on multiple media outlets worldwide. For example, many articles spread fake news about Greta Thunberg. These articles often seek to dismiss and to discredit her statements on climate change by mocking her.

A complex anticipatory response triggered by the perception of potential loss. Fear functions as a psychological precursor to deprivation, whether material, social, ecological, or ego-based. While potentially adaptive when motivating protective actions for collective preservation, fear also operates as a conflict catalyst between competing interests. This emotion initiates defensive strategies that manifest as disinformation, conspiracy formation, and delegitimisation of imagined threats. In climate discourse, fear operates multidirectionally: as both the emotional driver behind resistance to change and the emotional state attributed to advocates to undermine their credibility. The paradox of fear lies in its self-reinforcing nature – defensive reactions to fear often generate new loss scenarios, perpetuating cyclical conflict.

An overflow of water (or rarely, other fluids) that submerges land that is typically dry. Causes include heavy rain, ocean surges, rapid snowmelt, or dam failures. Floods are common natural disasters and can impact agriculture, infrastructure, and public health. Types include river, coastal, urban (flash), and groundwater flooding. Entering or failing to evacuate flooded areas can be dangerous or fatal.

Also, fairytale, is a traditional story that is passed down orally from generation to generation. Folktales are mostly spread within a specific community or culture and are meant to entertain. Narrators often add or change parts of the stories and include magical or fantasy elements.

The term fossil fuels refers to any non-renewable energy source, including coal, petroleum, and natural gas. The fossil fuel industry drills mines and holes to collect these energy sources. They are then burned to produce electricity or refined for products and to be used as petrol for transportation. Emissions connected to the fossil fuel industry account for almost 75 per cent of human-caused emissions in the last 20 years.

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A niche, often controversial community on Reddit that exists outside mainstream discussions, typically centred on extreme, taboo, or conspiratorial topics. Like all subreddits, it functions as an independent forum (/r/subredditname) where users post links or discussions. Fringe subreddits, however, attract marginalised or radical viewpoints. Some have been banned for violating Reddit’s rules, such as r/incel, which promoted misogyny and was linked to violent acts like Elliot Rodger’s 2014 Isla Vista attack. Others, like r/beatingwomen or r/gunsforsale, were removed for promoting harm. These spaces can foster echo chambers, amplifying fringe ideologies unchecked by broader communities.

Integrating game design elements into non-game environments. In the context of conspiracy theories, gamification often makes it easier for conspiracists to believe in the conspiracies: it makes the search for ‘truth’ more fun and exciting. Searching for hidden symbols or links that can be seen as evidence for a conspiracy can be a form of gamification.

Ash-coated clouds cover the sky. Rays of sun are blocked, temporarily the local temperature sinks. A techno-determinist looks up to the sky and thinks: ‘I could do that, too.’ The current rise in temperatures around the planet proves that humans can have large-scale impacts on the climate. Geoengineering involves the deliberate intervention in the Earth’s natural systems to decrease or reduce the rate of increase of the temperature. It usually aims to either increase the reflectivity of the Earth or to extract CO2 from the atmosphere. Examples include whitening clouds with sea salt, covering oceans with reflective foam, increasing the pH-value of oceans so they absorb more CO2. Such a focus on engineering shifts the focus from accountability towards spectacle. Neglecting to address the root cause and believing in the power of technology to provide a way out is a masculine, techno-determinist approach to fixing without care. It suggests that humans can continue to exert their self-made dominance over nature instead of listening to it.

Nature’s way of recycling carbon atoms. In this process, carbon atoms continually travel from the atmosphere to Earth and then back into the atmosphere. Carbon is released when organisms die, volcanoes erupt, fires blaze, fossil fuels are burned, and through a variety of other mechanisms. Humans play a major role in the carbon cycle through activities such as burning fossil fuels or land development. This surplus of carbon dioxide changes our climate, increasing global temperatures, causing ocean acidification, and disrupting the planet’s ecosystems. Carbon dioxide is removed from the atmosphere by phytoplankton (microscopic organisms in the ocean) and plants. Because of deforestation, the absorption cannot keep up with rising carbon levels.

An innate feature in human beings is the love for solving puzzles, revealing secrets and making sense of mysteries and the unknown. This feature is one of the main driving factors and appeals for people delving into conspiracy theories and getting lost in the rabbit holes that they tend to be. Solving puzzles is fun; it’s stimulating, and it creates community in a time when humans are increasingly isolated from one another. This can be a salvation within a lonely, seemingly meaningless existence. In many cases the issue might not be the conspiracy theory or disinformation narrative, but the underlying cause of increasing isolation and lack of meaning in peoples’ lives. Focusing on those underlying issues could be a more effective way to heal and move forward rather than attacking worldviews or perspectives one might disagree with.

Greatism is the tendency towards superlatives in political speech, the endless claim of being bigger, better, greater. At its core, it’s about the image of greatness rather than reality. As a rhetorical tool, it divides the world into a glorious ‘Us’ and a shadowy ‘Them’ to be overcome. It turns achievements into slogans and promises into spectacle. Slogans like ‘Make America Great Again,’ used by Donald Trump since 2016, promise a return to a mythical past in ways that move hearts more than concrete plans. Greatism is corrosive to democracy. It creates divisive identity politics and removes accountability. When leaders claim that they are the only hope, they can easily delegitimise essential institutions like the courts, the press, and activist groups. Ironically, this twists an old vision. In the late eighteenth century English philosopher Jeremy Bentham said that what should guide leadership is ‘the greatest happiness of the greatest number.’ By this he meant that greatness should be measured by real improvements in people’s lives. Today’s version of greatism ignores this. It makes ‘greatness’ a brand that needs no proof of results, just blind devotion to the story.

Green syndicalism is an ideological and political movement which believes labour and environmental justice struggles should be fought together, with aligned goals. The movement finds the root of ecological destruction in capitalist relations, and was put into practice in the 1990s by American environmentalist, feminist, and labour leader, Judi Bari. Bari founded IWW / Earth First! Local 1 in Northern California, bringing together timber workers and environmental activists. One of their initiatives was the Redwood Summer campaign, during which protesters used tree sits, blockades, and other forms of obstruction to prevent logging of the old growth coastal redwood groves at what is now the Headwaters Forest Reserve. During the protests, Bari denounced the practice of tree spiking (where a metal rod or nail was hammered into a tree to cause damage to saws), a popular technique with environmental activists, but not aligned with the green syndicalism movement’s ideals. Bari thought tree-spiking hurt both sides, leading to worker injuries and contributing to a negative perception of environmentalists’ actions, further widening the division between the two.

The practice of conveying a false or misleading impression that a company is environmentally responsible, often through unsubstantiated or deceptive statements and actions. A company highlights the sustainable features of a product to distract from its broader environmentally harmful activities. This not only misleads consumers who try to make conscious choices, but also undermines genuine sustainability efforts by creating confusion, fostering distrust, and allowing harmful practices to continue.

People sometimes associate signs and symbols with events or things that are unrelated; they add meaning or take over a sign or symbol to make it mean something else. Conspiracy theorists use these signs and symbols to propagate their ideas. Some find it interesting or like a game or puzzle to look for the signs and symbols. When they find them they are further convinced of the conspiracy theory. This phenomenon helps conspiracy theories spread. The eye of prophecy was found on a painting as far back as 1525. When the United States was founded, the eye was added to the US dollar and to the official government seal to symbolise God looking out for the newly founded country. More recently the eye has been commandeered by conspiracy theorists to symbolise government over-surveillance. Similarly, the exhaust fumes from airplanes (‘contrails’), which are made up mainly of water that crystallises at high altitude as a byproduct of the jet engine, have been used by conspiracy theorists as ‘evidence’ that scientists and governments are manipulating the weather. Humans are generally not good at dealing with uncertainty. Finding meaning in symbols and signs helps them find someone to blame for what they can’t explain or don’t understand. Having a way to explain things helps give them control over the uncertainty.

Something is homogenous in structure if it has a uniform composition. Countries can be homogenous when the majority of the population is of the same ethnic, national, political, or religious background. Data is often examined for what it tells us about the homogeneity of consumers.

Powerful tools for building mutual understanding, especially in polarised or conspiratorial contexts. Humour lowers defences, allowing people to engage with difficult or controversial ideas without immediate rejection. Absurdity, by exaggerating or mocking extreme claims, can expose logical flaws and reduce the appeal of misinformation. Memes, satire, and parody are common online forms that use humour to challenge conspiracies or fake news. While not always effective at changing hardened beliefs, humour creates shared moments of reflection and connection, opening space for dialogue across divides. It offers a softer, indirect way to question false or radical narratives.

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The process of making something stronger, more extreme, or more noticeable. It can apply to emotions, events, actions, or conditions – amplifying their effect or presence.

Explaining or assigning meaning to something. It reflects an individual’s understanding, shaped by experience, context, and culture. In the performing arts, interpretation refers to how a performer expresses a role or piece – through tone, emotion, or technique – adding personal insight and style.

Phenomenological spaces between observed phenomena and constructed meaning, representing both absences and sites for interpretive intervention. These liminal spaces function as opportunities for expanded consciousness or as vulnerability points for narrative distortion. When engaged constructively, interpretative gaps facilitate epistemic expansion by directing attention to overlooked spaces. Conversely, when filled through uncritical pattern-seeking or confirmation bias, they can become self-reinforcing belief structures resistant to contradictory evidence. Interpretive gaps serve as a fundamental component in both artistic meaning-creation and conspiratorial knowledge construction, with the critical distinction being the degree of reflective awareness regarding the interpretive nature of gap-filling processes.

Used in sociology, philosophy, and communication theory to describe a community connected through a shared way of interpreting the world due to the context, experience, identity, and culture shared by individuals. Communication within the community is often better, more reasonable, and specific. These groups are not formal, but rather abstract. Yet they are important for predicting the perception of information by a specific group of people. In the field of design, this can be linked to target groups. It is important to know a specific target group so that the goal of your design is properly perceived.

An invasive species refers to a plant or animal that is not native to a region-specific ecosystem but is introduced, either intentionally or unintentionally, with the result of disrupting the natural balance. For example, since its introduction to the southeastern US in 1876, the kudzu plant (Pueraria montana) from Asia has flourished at the expense of native plants such as oak and hickory. Similarly, the European starling (Sturnus vulgaris), introduced to North America in the nineteenth century, competes with native birds like the eastern bluebird (Sialia sialis) or the red-headed woodpecker (Melanerpes erythrocephalus) for resources and nesting sites. Studies from the South African National Biodiversity Institute show how non-native starlings displace indigenous bird species by dominating nesting cavities and food resources. Research in Palestine by the Palestine Institute for Biodiversity and Sustainability likewise identifies invasive species, such as the red palm weevil (Rhynchophorus ferrugineus), as major drivers of ecological stress, particularly in Gaza, Jericho, and the Jordan Valley, where agricultural systems are already weakened by restricted land access and environmental degradation. Environmental agencies such as the International Union for Conservation of Nature and the US Fish and Wildlife Service estimate that there are over 18,000 invasive species documented worldwide. Despite its use in everyday parlance, the term raises complex questions about who gets to label something as invasive and where the line might be between an ‘introduction’ and an ‘invasion’. The term ‘invasive’ has aggressive connotations, referring to an occasion when an army or country uses force to enter another country. Such connotations carry extra weight in the context of colonial legacies. Human movements, like the introduction of non-native species, reflect patterns of domination and displacement. This term can evoke historical power dynamics and raise ethical concerns in its application to both ecology and human behaviour.

A change or impact that, once it happens, cannot be undone within human timescales – meaning it could last for centuries, millennia, or longer. These changes often go beyond a tipping point, after which natural systems cannot return to their previous state, even if greenhouse gas emissions are reduced or stopped. Examples include: the collapse of ice sheets, species extinctions, or the loss of coral reefs.

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Also, flow production or series production, involves manufacturing products in large quantities over a short period of time. Assembly lines and mass production technology is mainly used to create products quickly and economically. Division of labour is common as opposed to specialised workers completing a whole product. Mass production leads to high emissions. It pollutes the water and air and leaves behind plastic waste, causing serious environmental impact.

The idea or significance that something conveys, be it a word, symbol, action, or event. It helps provide clarity and purpose. Meaning can be literal (direct and factual) or symbolic (abstract and interpretative). Understanding meaning involves context, personal perspective, and cultural background.

When we say meaning is fluid, we mean that meaning is not fixed. It is ever-changing and evolving. People interpret meanings differently, and it cannot be communicated without context.

Recent times have been referred to as a post-truth era as it becomes harder and harder to identify something akin to objective truth. Shifting focus from truth to meaning is very helpful when arguing over something that is ultimately up to subjective interpretation. Instead of trying to convince parties with opposing views what is and what is not truth, we should perhaps start developing ways to create new meaning in this chaotic age of overflowing information and perspectives. Finding meaning in the natural world and reconnecting our emotional selves to these elements, might be crucial to furthering climate action on an individual and societal level. Old folktales, stories, and myths might project significance, fear, awe, and love towards the living world around us and our immediate local environments.

Micropolitics refers to the subtle, everyday forms of power and resistance that operate outside formal institutions at the scale of the local organisation or the individual. French philosopher Gilles Deleuze and psychoanalyst and political theorist Félix Guattari have used the term to understand rhizomatic flows of desire, belief, and connection that shape how we engage with each other and with systems of authority. In the context of the climate crisis, micropolitical acts are often deeply personal and might include growing food communally, reducing waste within the home, or voicing concerns at a local level. As citizens, we can transform our relationships, not only through grand legislative battles but also through the smaller, everyday shifts in our actions and decisions. Micropolitics challenges us to consider how these individual, sometimes barely visible interventions might eventually accumulate to drive broader, structural change, suggesting that the personal and the political are always intertwined.

The word prerequisite refers to something that is required before something else can happen. The phrase ‘miscommunication is a prerequisite for communication’ suggests that miscommunication isn’t just a flaw within communication, but actually necessary for communication to happen. If language, signs, and messages were always interpreted in the exact same way, communication would be pointless. There would be no need to explain or clarify anything. The potential for misunderstanding is what makes communication possible and worthwhile.

Pointing someone in the wrong direction or giving them false or misleading information. Misdirection shifts focus from evidence-based facts to misleading or emotionally charged information. Rather than addressing the truth, misdirection exploits fear and biases, which creates distrust in experts or institutions. Misdirection includes several methods: pieces of irrelevant information used to distract in communication, such as focusing on a politician’s life instead of their decisions; false causality, where unrelated events are connected to create conspiracies, such as claiming natural disasters are orchestrated; oversimplification that offers politically driven explanations for complex issues, such as climate change; and appealing to emotion to, for instance, exaggerate danger and seek to provoke fear or outrage.

False or inaccurate information, often deliberately intended to mislead.

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Reducing the severity, seriousness, or negative impact of something. It includes taking preventive measures, managing risk, or lessening the perceived seriousness of events through context or language. In communication, mitigation can be expressed using softening words like fairly, rather, or quite.

A way of understanding the world through the lens of interconnected networks, like the mycelium that links roots, soil, and trees see life as a complex, continuous web where humans are a mere subset. Animals, plants, fungi, rivers, soil, infrastructures, and even machines all participate in, and sustain, this web, moving beyond human-centred narratives. Every entity is an active agent, shaping and being shaped by its surroundings. For example, granting a river legal rights of personhood, as has happened in several countries, is a societal shift that acknowledges it as a living actor in the landscape, not merely a resource to be exploited. This perspective shows that an individual’s well-being cannot be separated from the well-being of the entire web.

The personification of a creative and controlling force affecting the world and humans, according to the Oxford Dictionary. Elsewhere it is defined as the personification of nature focused on its life-giving and nurturing aspects through embodying it as mother or mother goddess and known as Mother Earth or Earth Mother. Yet when climate change comes up, our planet becomes symbolically divided into Mother Nature and Planet Earth. The two terms mean almost the same thing – but only almost. Mother Nature evokes a sense of connection with nature and its processes, portraying Earth as a living entity we are part of. In contrast, Planet Earth implies a more objectified view of the world as something external, potentially to be possessed or controlled by humans. This distinction reflects discursive strategies of positive self-presentation and negative other-presentation, rooted in the construction of Us versus Them.

Sleep is a natural process of restoration, essential to the cycle of life. Even though sleep is one of a human’s fundamental physiological needs, alongside breathing, drinking, and eating, in capital-driven world, rest is perceived as a constraint, something that prevents individuals from achieving their full potential and productivity. This relentless pursuit of growth leads to both social exhaustion and ecological degradation. Rest is resistance, a concept originally coined by Tricia Hersey, founder of The Nap Ministry in 2016, challenges this dominant culture of performance and overwork. Better understanding of the significance and role of rest in our daily rhythms as well as those of nature, might help us achieve our full potential and to be more productive in seeking to mitigate the climate emergency.

A national archive is a collection of a nation’s historical documents, records, and cultural materials, typically stored in government buildings, public libraries, or digital databases. Archives play a critical role in democratic societies by providing citizens with access to records that shape national history and collective memory. While archives are meant to be objective repositories of truth, what is preserved, how it is categorised and what is omitted can significantly influence a public’s understanding of its past. The existence and accessibility of national archives are vital for democracy, as they ensure the public’s right to access information about their nation’s history. For example, in the US, the National Archives and Records Administration is responsible for maintaining and publishing the legally authentic and authoritative copies of acts of Congress, presidential directives, and federal regulations, as well as for transmitting votes of the Electoral College to Congress. Selective and non-transparent archiving can obscure uncomfortable truths about a nation, such as state-sponsored violence or civil unrest, and reshape the collective memory.

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Or, nature-based systems (NBS or NbS), address societal problems while using sustainable and nature-based methods. They try to be beneficial for society. Alongside other decarbonisation strategies, they have the potential to contribute to reaching net-zero CO2.

Giving some or someone a name. For example, to nominate a five-step CO2 emission plan.

Derived from Latin obstructus (ob ‘in the way of’ and stere ‘to spread’) and characterised by its capacity to hinder progression across varied temporal scales. The term functions at multiple levels, from explosive, immediately perceptible disruptions to near-static, normalised hindrances that become environmentally embedded. Despite temporal variation, most forms generate systemic violence, with slower manifestations often producing more profound cumulative harm through their normalisation. This relationship between temporality and impact is evident in environmental justice contexts, where gradual obstructive processes (radioactive contamination, bureaucratic delays, procedural barriers) create intergenerational trauma and structural inequity. Understanding obstruction requires consideration of its temporal profile, visibility, normalisation potential, and capacity for systemic violence through sustained impedance rather than immediate disruption.

Throughout history in economic systems, the idea of one-size-fits-all reflects the imposition of a singular model onto diverse peoples, cultures, and contexts. It describes moments in which colonial powers have enforced their own standards on other industries, ignoring local knowledge and autonomy. Over time, these standards have been normalised in the ‘globalised’ societies, creating systems in which anything that doesn’t fit falls out. At its core, one-size-fits-all highlights how claims to universality can become tools of domination, shaping everything from farming, clothing systems, to governance and trade. In contemporary politics and democratic processes, similar patterns appear when standardised approaches are treated as neutral. Such an approach reinforces existing power relations, while often silencing diverse voices. By spotlighting this term and its role in a larger, historical pattern of oppression enacted by the Global North, this definition invites a critical look at who sets, and benefits from, these norms, and who is expected to bend and adapt.

A legally binding international treaty on climate change. It was adopted by 196 parties at the UN Climate Change Conference (COP21) in Paris on 12 December 2015 and entered into force on 4 November 2016. Its goal is to limit the global average temperature increase to 1.5 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels.

How we use language to manipulate the meaning of things. In relation to the climate crisis, for example, perspectivation is involved when companies want to shift attention away from themselves and blame the general public and their consumption. Shifting the viewpoint is not about facts, but about why and how we present those facts. It shows how important it is to be aware of possible hidden motives when someone relates facts.

A framework describing limits to the impacts of human activities on the Earth system. Beyond these limits, the environment may not be able to self-regulate any longer. The framework is based on scientific evidence that human actions, especially those of industrialised societies since the Industrial Revolution, have become the main driver of global environmental change. The planetary boundaries delineate the “safe” operating space for the planet across nine different domains: biosphere integrity, climate change, land-system change, freshwater change, nutrient cycles, ocean acidification, aerosol pollution, ozone, and ‘novel entities’ (which includes pollutants like plastic).

Large amounts of different types of something. Countries can be plural, having different nationalities, ethnic, or religious groups. Plurality can mark the majority of something, usually used to describe voting results. For instance, ‘Bosnia and Herzegovina is a plural country.’

A phenomenon that occurs when opposing groups are locked in a state of ongoing confrontation – not to promote their own beliefs, but to actively discredit those of the other side. This dynamic is often used as a political strategy to maintain control, shifting the focus away from people’s actual opinions or needs and instead delaying real solutions. As a result, society becomes divided into extremes, where understanding is lost and the goal becomes constant opposition rather than dialogue. Polarisation is also used in the context of climate change, to distort public perception and turn a global scientific and humanitarian issue into a divisive political debate.

In a country as small and flood prone as the Netherlands, citizens are forced to cooperate and work together even if they have many different ideas and thoughts. Without unanimous agreement on shared responsibility for maintenance of the dikes and pumping stations, the polders would flood and everyone would suffer. A particularly Dutch approach to decision-making, known as the polder model, therefore, is based on achieving consensus between parties and prioritises a process that often requires compromise and the creation of coalitions between parties and directions. Symbolically, the term is derived from polderen, the practice of reclaiming land from the sea through the building of dikes. Constructing barriers against the force of nature stands in stark contrast to the true meaning of compromise, however, suggesting that even this system of consensus decision making may be conceptually breached.

A complex situation where different, interconnected crises amplify one another’s negative effects. Although the crises are in different domains and have different impacts, they influence one another, amplifying each other. The interconnection prevents any one crisis from being isolated and resolved. Climate change seems to be the last priority. Short-term crises (war, Covid-19, economic crises) will always take precedence over long-term crises (climate change, biodiversity crisis, decline of democracy, etc.).

Latin for ‘after this,’ refering to something occurring after an event, often without prior planning. In statistics, a post hoc analysis is done after a study to explore outcomes not initially intended. The term also relates to the fallacy post hoc ergo propter hoc – assuming one event causes another simply because it follows the first. An example that briefly explains post hoc in terms of climate change is this phrase: ‘The government implements electric buses and cars, and after its implementation, it makes the study of the impact that this can generate, generating only expectations and more problems for the future.’

Often used to describe a political climate in which politicians appeal to emotions rather than factual truths, and in which people make decisions based on ‘what feels right’ rather than what is supported by facts. Post-truth can also refer to the idea that we live in a world where so many impactful events are constantly occurring that our perception of reality changes, and nothing feels truly ‘real’ anymore. Digitalisation plays a major role in this, as the flow of information is more intense and media can be manipulated more easily.

The declaration of something self-evident (or stating the obvious). It is the affirmation of a quality or cause of something other. We use them to clear out any possible misconceptions or misunderstandings we might have, by reinforcing the statement with predication.

A set of ideas, facts, or allegations spread deliberately in order to further one’s cause, or to damage an opposing cause with the intention of supporting a particular movement, political party, nation, institution, or set of ideals such as those upheld by a specific religion. Along with misinformation and fake news, propaganda has the power to polarise public opinion and create societal divide. Propaganda is spread with a specific goal or set of goals, achieved by selecting facts, arguments, and displays of symbols and signs, presenting them in ways the propagandist believes will have the most effect. To maximise effect, the propagandist will often distort truth and spread misinformation, omitting facts and manipulating reactors into supporting their cause. The spread of propaganda has become increasingly accessible thanks to the widespread availability of the internet and social media, particularly helpful in disseminating favouritism for certain political movements.

An action or speech that makes someone angry. Categories of provocation are: unintentional or incidental (when someone sincerely expresses their opinion or a fact without the intent to offend, yet may still provoke others); intentional but well-meaning (purposefully provocative speech used for positive intent, such as in formal debate to highlight differences respectfully); or malevolent (designed to offend or provoke without positive intent, including belittling or misleading speech, even if technically true).

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The process of moving beyond compromise towards extreme positions, fuelled by ideology and religion. Individuals at the margins, experiencing identity loss, are more vulnerable. Social networks and the internet serve as key platforms for spreading extremist views and recruiting individuals, fostering echo chambers where opposing perspectives are absent. This psychological process enables the radicalised person to deny equal dignity to those who differ in faith or values. Radicalisation often involves a desire for heroic self-affirmation, creating a ‘negative hero’ who embraces anti-social values through violence. Fact-checking rarely corrects falsehoods; instead, it reinforces group identity within polarised informational bubbles.

The term ‘regeneration’ builds on, as well as critiques, overused terms like ‘sustainability’ and ‘circularity,’ exposing the missing links between ecological, social, and democratic systems, and the continued dominance of capitalism. Rather than merely sustaining what exists, regenerative action seeks to repair relationships across human and more-than-human worlds damaged by capitalism’s dependency on extractivism and the pressure to produce fast and cheaply. In a hoped-for-world where renewal replaces extraction, and imagination becomes a tool for justice and adaptation, agency is restored to communities and ecologies, and circularity is reframed as a living, participatory practice of continual becoming and collective responsibility. However, for regenerative imaginaries to thrive in a capitalist society, the challenge lies in measurement. Regeneration resists existing metrics such as time = outcome or money = value, because it lives in dynamic, co-created processes. The next challenge for advocates of regenerative practice is to imagine how this way of thinking could take root in systems that currently do not recognise it as valuable.

The connection people feel with images that represent situations, places, or experiences close to their own reality, making it easier to identify with what is being shown. It is a humanistic approach that measures the effectiveness of an image based on how strongly humans can emotionally connect with it. For this reason, there has been a recent shift in climate change campaigns – moving away from traditional images like polar bears in the Arctic or turtles in plastic-filled oceans, towards visuals where humans are more at the centre, such as natural disasters in inhabited areas.

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The act of keeping something hidden. In the context of climate change, it can refer to the withholding of information by governments, corporations, or other actors about environmental impacts, emissions data, or policy decisions, which can hinder transparency, accountability, and effective climate action.

A study of signs and symbols as elements of language or other systems of communication. The world is understood through signs, and people are limited by their own perception and interpretation. Examples of sign systems are traffic signs, visual arts, body language, icons, or emojis.

Weather is immediate and sensory – felt through rain, wind, or heat – while climate is long-term and abstract, understood through data and patterns. Designers translate weather into emotional visuals: melting letters, shattered grids, stormy gradients. Climate requires symbolic tools: maps, charts, infographics. Bridging these modes can help viewers connect what they feel now to what they must understand over time. Design then becomes a semiotic tool to make climate visible, human, and urgent – transforming sensation into awareness, and awareness into meaning.

Any object, gesture, event, or symbol that conveys meaning or information. It can be natural or human-made and is essential in communication. In semiotics, signs fall into three categories: icon (resembles what it represents such as a photo of a tree); index (has a direct connection, like smoke as an indication of fire); and symbol (arbitrary, culturally defined, as in the word ‘tree’). Signs can also be visual (traffic signs), auditory (alarms), or physical (gestures like waving).

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Speculative futures refers to the process and ethos of imagining, building, and inviting participation in scenarios that approximate how our lives might change under shifting ecological and social conditions. These scenarios question dominant climate narratives (such as the Global North perspective, apocalyptic scenarios, and climate doomism), highlight what’s usually overlooked, and create room to think about alternatives for resistance in a moment shaped by misinformation and uncertainty. These scenarios can take the form of visual sketches, short narratives, or speculative objects that help people reflect on different possibilities. Designers use these tools not only to predict what will happen, but also to question existing narratives, open up conversations, and explore other forms of resilience and collective action.

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An object, shape, or sign that represents something else, often conveying abstract ideas beyond its literal form. Examples include a heart as symbol for love or dove as symbol for peace. Symbols are widely used in language, art, religion, mathematics, and science to communicate complex ideas simply and effectively.

A belief that a powerful, coordinated group – political elites, corporate actors, or secret societies, operate with hidden agendas to manipulate public perception, suppress truth, or maintain control, often over a long period of time and across different areas (politics, media, science, or the economy). Key features of systematic conspiracy theories are: wide scope (not just one thing going wrong, but why the whole world or system seems broken); powerful actors (often involving governments, secret societies, corporations, or elite individuals); hidden agendas (claims that there is a secret plan to deceive, control, or harm the public); long-term (alleged conspiracies usually stretch over years or decades); self-sealing logic (evidence against the theory is often seen as part of the cover-up – making it hard to disprove to believers). Examples include the New World Order wherein a secret global elite is trying to create a one-world government and claims that Big Pharma companies suppress cures for diseases to keep people sick and profits high.

Humanity is living in an era of human-driven biodiversity collapse – what scientists increasingly refer to as the Sixth Extinction. Recent global studies show that, in human-impacted ecosystems, species richness is on average nearly 20 per cent lower than in undisturbed areas. In addition, extinction rates are now estimated to be at least tens to hundreds of times higher than the background rate over the past ten million years. Meanwhile, the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services reports that around one million species of plants and animals are currently at risk of extinction and more recent reassessments suggest that up to two million species may be threatened globally. These figures indicate a severe, accelerating loss of biodiversity, much of it driven by human activity. Humans are not passive observers in this crisis; they are active agents whose over-consumption, growth, and indifference cause the loss of biodiversity. The Sixth Extinction is a political issue as much as it is a natural event; the accelerating rate of disappearing species is an alarming reflection of our economic systems, historical legacies, and daily habits.

The term ‘Third World’ emerged during the Cold War to describe countries that were non-aligned with NATO or the Warsaw Pact. Over time, it became associated with economically poor or non-industrialised nations, which led to negative stereotypes. As of 2025, the term is often replaced with more accurate terms like ‘developing countries.’ These nations – currently about 45 across Africa, Asia, the Caribbean, and the Pacific – are identified using criteria like income level, human capital, and economic / environmental vulnerability, as reviewed triennially by the UN.

Everyone considers their own truth and gathers with like-minded people.

Taken literally, the additional material used to fill the empty space inside a package such as foam peanuts or bubble wrap. Metaphorically, the concept of ‘filling an empty space’ (or void) is a complex expression that describes compensating for a lack or emptiness in a particular life situation or experience. In relation to philosophy, the void is associated with metaphysics discussed in ancient Greek philosophy (Democritus and Aristotle), Buddhism, Taoism, and Western philosophies of existentialism and nihilism. The concept of filling the void can refer to physical, psychological, or emotional gaps one seeks to fill, usually associated with loss or grief, loneliness, an unmet goal, or failed relationship. Often, it suggests a lack of fulfilment or essentials for emotional or spiritual well-being, stemming from various sources such as lack of direction in life or desire for deeper connections. Many resort to negative ways to fill the void (or a toxic voidfiller) such as alcohol, drugs, food, bad relationships, and addictions to gambling, the online world, and social media, or other mindless activity. Alternatively, positive voidfillers might include recognising the feeling of emptiness and using it as an opportunity to prioritise health, strengthen self-esteem, spend time with oneself, and find hobbies, or seek help via therapy.

Or, wind farm syndrome, refers to alleged health issues related to living near wind turbines. The condition was proposed by paediatrician Nina Pierpont, who interviewed ten families who had reported a range of health problems. While symptoms include sleep disturbance, headaches, and tinnitus, there is no scientific evidence linking them to wind turbines. Wind turbine syndrome has been defined as pseudoscience.